What is Buddhism? Applications 5-1 - About the Theory of Emptiness (Sunya) 1-

    So far, we have mainly focused on the teachings of Shakyamuni Buddha since early Buddhism, but as the later period of the flourishing of Mahayana Buddhism approached, the word "emptiness" began to be frequently used, especially in the Prajnaparamita sutras.

"Emptiness" means that fundamentally, everything in this world exists solely in relation to causes and conditions. Nothing has an independent essence or substance on its own, and everything exists merely as conceptualizations labeled and categorized based on various relationships existing in people's minds. Therefore, assigning any fixed meaning to these concepts does not imply their inherent existence or unchanging identity.

For example, let's take the example of a chair. Upon closer examination, we find that there is nothing but a combination of sponge, fabric, iron, and plastic. We conveniently label the combination of these materials as a "chair," but the concept of a chair only exists in our minds. As evidence, someone who does not have the concept of a "chair" might see it and decide to use it as a "table." Therefore, the relationships formed by various materials are fundamentally "empty," and whatever meaning we attach to them is subjective. Whether we think of the combination of sponge, fabric, iron, and plastic as a "chair," a "table," or a "toy for riding and playing," it is ultimately up to individual interpretation. However, it is often more convenient in practical life to accept the shared meanings or concepts embraced by the majority of society. Yet, just because a concept is shared by the majority does not mean that it represents an unchanging essence in reality.

However, since childhood, we have been indoctrinated with these shared meanings or concepts through language, which often leads us to mistakenly believe that these concepts themselves represent the "essence" or "unchanging identity" of corresponding objects. It's like having what could be termed "fixed concepts." As a result, we often find ourselves trapped by countless "fixed concepts." It's ridiculous to be ensnared by concepts that are fundamentally provisional and conceptual.

This perspective of "emptiness" emphasizes that there is no inherent, unchanging essence to things, challenging the view that objects possess independent, immutable substances. This perspective was emphasized especially in the Prajnaparamita texts, precursors of the Mahayana scriptures, around the 3rd to 4th centuries after the passing of Shakyamuni Buddha. It was further elaborated by Nagarjuna, a scholar from South India, around the 2nd century CE.

However, this perspective was not at all a unilateral departure from the teachings of Shakyamuni Buddha. On the contrary, Shakyamuni taught Middle way and the concepts of "impermanence" and "non-self." "Impermanence" asserts that everything in this world is constantly changing and nothing retains a permanent identity. "Non-self" complements impermanence by stating that since nothing maintains a permanent identity, there is no inherent "self" to be found.

To illustrate this with a familiar example, consider the baseball team "New York Yankees," which has been existing since 1913. However, upon closer examination of what constitutes the "New York Yankees," it becomes evident that there is no fixed entity or unchanging essence. The team from Babe Ruth's time is vastly different from the current team in terms of players, coaches, and managers. There is no enduring “New York Yankees" with unchanging identities. The only thing that might persist indefinitely is the "name" only. The "New York Yankees" may have been nothing more than a name arbitrarily given to a group of specific baseball players from the beginning. Thus, what endures is merely a "name" or "concept," existing only in people's minds, while the actual players are constantly changing, illustrating impermanence and non-self.

Similarly, individual players like Hideki Matsui are composed of approximately 60 trillion cells, which completely regenerate in about 2.5 years. It may be said that his DNA, which is genetic information, is the blueprint for his physical body, and that it is what maintains them. However, it is also said that the way the DNA manifests itself changes dramatically with changes in the environment. Therefore, at least physically, there is no immutable essence to Hideki Matsui. From a personality point of view also, whether he becomes a successful entrepreneur or falls into homelessness, his essence does not remain fixed. If there were a fixed essence to Matsui, he wouldn't be able to change, for better or worse. It is precisely because there is no fixed essence or identity that humans can change.

Thus, the concepts of "impermanence" and "non-self" were initially taught with the practical aim of eliminating fixed concepts and attachments to oneself and related phenomena. However, around two to three centuries after Shakyamuni's passing, within the community of Buddhist disciples who meticulously analyzed and classified Shakyamuni's teachings, a new perspective emerged. While maintaining the stance of "non-self" for each individual, the idea that there is some form of substance or essence inherent in the objects perceived by humans began to surface especially in the school called Sarvāstivāda, which has produced a great deal of Abhidharma literature. Subsequently, criticism arose against such perspectives. These critics were opposed to their substantialist worldview, which contradicted the Buddha's teaching of selflessness. And because such substantialist thinking developed among those who considered Arhatship to be the ultimate goal, criticism was directed not only at their substantialist thinking but also at the method of practice itself in pursuit of Arhatship and their unsympathetic attitude of leaving many suffering sentient beings alone and becoming arhats to enter nirvana.

Such movement led to the compilation of sutras such as the Prajnaparamita, which focused on the theme of "emptiness" negating substantialist worldview as contradicted the Buddha's teaching of selflessness. These critics also argued that focusing solely on achieving individual enlightenment (Arhatship) was a selfish approach, and instead advocated for all beings to pursue the path to Buddhahood through bodhisattva practices. This movement came to be known as Mahayana Buddhism.

Around the 2nd century CE, Nagarjuna appeared and further elaborated on the perspective of "emptiness" outlined in texts like the Prajnaparamita. He critiqued substantialist views and redefined the concept of "emptiness" as emphasizing that nothing possesses inherent, fixed substance or identity, thereby reaffirming Shakyamuni Buddha's stance on "impermanence" and "non-self" and above all “the Middle Way.”

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